REFLECTIONS
IN THE KING'S MIRROR
ALL MANNER OF PATTERNS, AS IN BRIGHT MIRROR
Written
in Old Norse by an
anonymous
author ca. 1200 A.D., the Norwegian "King's Mirror" is a strange
and puzzling work, not least of all because the anonymity is
intentional: "lest perchance" readers "should reject what may be found
useful in it because of contempt, envy, or hostile feeling of some sort
for the author." Thus that most ancient of problems--the collective
conflict between ego and intellect. And also, just possibly, a
pre-emptive defense against repercussions generated by displeasure at
parts of
the work itself. In any event, even from the start (albeit tempered by
knowledge and compassion) there is undoubtedly an element of
worldly-weariness present in "King's Mirror," for the
English translation of the first chapter begins as
follows:
INTRODUCTION; NAME AND PURPOSE OF THE WORK
I PASSED all the crafts before my mind's eye and studied
intently
all the practices belonging to each craft; and I saw a vast multitude
walking wearily along the paths that slope downward from the highways
of virtue into error and vice. Some of these were very steep, and those
who followed them perished in desolate ravines; for the long, wearisome
road had fatigued them, and they had not enough strength left to climb
up the hillside, nor were they able to find the by-paths that led back
to the highways of virtue.
The destruction of this multitude was due, it seemed
to me, to
various causes: some perished through ignorance, for the ways of error
were trodden so generally that they appeared to be the most convenient
to follow, and ignorant men mistook them for highways, since the
majority seemed to walk in them; some perished because of laziness and
carelessness; others feared that they would suffer derision and
contumely, if they walked the highroad alone; while still others were
led astray by perversity, wickedness, and the various passions.
But when I had observed how good morals were scorned
and how the
scorners perished, I began to wonder how to find a road where I should
not be traveling entirely alone and yet would not have to choose one of
those paths where the crowd were exhausting their strength, lest
the steep climb should weary me, if I were to make an effort to get
back up again.
Inasmuch as my father was still living and loved me
well, I thought
it would be better to seek his counsel than after a slight
consideration to reach a decision which might displease him. So I
hastened to my father and laid the whole problem before him. He was a
wise and kind man, and I found that he was pleased when he heard that
my errand was to learn right conduct. He permitted me to ask whatever I
wished about the practices of the various crafts, and how they
differed. He also promised to make known to me all the usages that are
most properly observed by each craft that I might ask about. He further
promised to point out, as a warning, the paths of error which most men
enter upon when they leave the highways of virtue. Finally he promised
to show me the by-paths that those may take who wish to return from
wrong roads to the highway.
... The book has been given a handsome title: it is called Speculum Regale, not because of
pride in him who wrote it, but because the title ought to make those
who hear it more eager to know the work itself; and for this reason,
too, that if any one wishes to be informed as to proper conduct,
courtesy, or comely and precise forms of speech,
he will find and see these therein along with many illustrations and all manner of patterns,
as in a bright mirror. And it is called King's Mirror, because in it one
may read of the manners of kings as well as of other men. A king,
moreover, holds the highest title and ought, with his court and all his
servants, to observe the most proper customs, so that in them his
subjects may see good examples of proper conduct, uprightness, and all
other courtly virtues. Besides, every king should look frequently into
this mirror and observe first his own conduct and next that of the men
who are subject to him. He should reward all whose conduct is good, but
should discipline and compel those to observe good morals who cannot
learn without threats. Although the book is first and foremost a king's
mirror, yet it is intended for every one as a common possession; since
whoever wishes is free to look into it and to seek information, as he
may desire, about his own conduct, or any other type of manners which
he may find discussed in the book. And I believe that no man will be
considered unwise or unmannerly who carefully observes everything that
he finds in this work which is suited to his mode of living, no matter
what his rank or title may be. (THE
KING’S MIRROR [Speculum
Regale–Konung’s Skuggsjá]
Translated from the Old Norse with Introduction and Notes by Laurence
Marcellus Larson, Twayne, New York 1917: 72-73;75. emphases supplied)
FORM, CONTENT AND DISCREPANCIES IN THE KING'S MIRROR
Thus
the rationale and subdivision of the book into two topics and two
parts, with (one might suggest), more explantion than strictly
necessary for the inclusion of the second. Or, was this (as perhaps
intended), a veiled indicator that something else of interest might be
found among all manner of patterns,
as in a bright mirror? Although this supposition is admittedly
conjectural,
there are known oddities in the "King's Mirror," especially in
the
first part, notably a marked shift from "fact to fancy" in Chapters 8
through 11 (plus Chapter 12 if the
Kraken is included), after which the book returns to the more
practical and often interesting discourses of earlier chapters. However, it is
not the intention here to
go over the entire work in detail, but to
concentrate on the anomalous portions in the first part to learn
whether anything useful
can be made of them. To this end the contents are shown below in Table
4a with the
titles of the chapters of
interest in
the first part emphasized and the
inconsequential second part
omitted altogether.
Nevertheless, the
"King's Mirror" is
comprised of
two uneven parts so disparate that had they been published separately
without explanation no one
would have been any the wiser. The unusual title
on the other hand
is explained by Fridjof Nansen (1911:243) who notes that
such
works originated from a prototype written in India "for the
education of princes, and which were called Princes' Mirrors." And
also, that " In
imitation of these, 'mirror' (speculum) was used as the title of
works of various kinds in medieval Europe."
The
suspect nature of chapters 8 through 11 has long been acknowledged, but
although the unknown author provides
reasons for their inclusion--essentially to lighten things up--this does not
seem entirely convincing, thus once
again "Methinks he doth explain too much."
An overly
suspicious presumption on my part? Perhaps, but there are additional
grounds for caution here. Although
the actual date of the King's Mirror" remains uncertain and the
following note (also from Nansen) provides a slight improvement on the
more general date of around
1200 AD, it nevertheless introduces an element of uncertaintity and
also includes the
possibility of later additions--both
further grist for the mill:
... Professor Moltke
Moe has pointed out in his lectures that the
quotations in the "King's Mirror" from the book of the Marvels of
India, from Prester John's letter, are derived from a version of the
latter which, as shown by Zarncke, is not known before about
1300.
Moltke Moe therefore supposes that the "King's Mirror," in the form we
know it, may be a later and incomplete adaptation of the original work.
The latter may have been written by Ivar Bodde in his old age between
1230 and 1240. (Fridjof Nansen, In
Northern Mists, 1911;243)
But there is more
than the precise date of the "King's Mirror" to occupy our attention.
There is also the suggestion that if so desired (for a variety of
reasons) the contents of the work may be modified, along with pleas
that changes be inserted in "proper form and connection," and (or) in addition,
"discreetly remove all such...matters which seem to impede the work."
Thus the following pleas from the unknown author of the "King's Mirror:"
This request,
however, which surely may be granted to any man, we should like to make: we ask all good men
who hear this book to give it careful thought
and study; and if
there should be aught which seems necessary to the work but has not
been included, whether concerning morals and conduct or discreet and
proper forms of speech, let them insert it in proper form and connection.And
if they find any matters which seem to impair the work or to have been
discussed at too great length, let them discreetly remove all such and
thus, amending our ignorance in kindness, help our work to be
appreciated in proper spirit. (Last paragraph, Chapter One,
"Introduction, Name and Purpose of the Work," THE KING’S MIRROR (Speculum Regale–Konung’s Skuggsjá)
Translated from the Old Norse with Introduction and Notes by Laurence
Marcellus Larson, Twayne Publishers, New York 1917:76; emphases
supplied).
Thus taking the above at its
word, one might (I suggest) ultimately replace the title of
Chapter 10: "The Natural Marvels of Ireland" with "The Natural Marvels of Ireland and
Ireland the Great," or more simply "The Natural Marvels of Ireland the Great." But not
without additonal complications in either case since the two "Irelands"
have by now become increasingly difficult to separate.
Where next then?
First and foremost it will be necessary to revisit
the Greenland Duality and eventually add to it along the way to
locating Ireland the Great.
THE
GREENLAND DUALITY REVISITED
The
complexities inherent in the
title and subject of the present section--Reflections in the King's Mirror--require
a background that
necessarily includes the "Greenland Duality" determined earlier in
Section Three, and as a refresher, repeated below.
THE
GREENLAND DUALITY
The
concept of duality
in this context does not originate in the present work, it was in fact
discussed by Joseph Fischer
years ago in an entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia entitled: PRE-COLUMBIAN
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA :
History is silent as to later
voyages to Helluland, but the role played by the Land of Stone is all
the more important in legend and song, in which its situation changes
at will. The Helluland of history lay to the south of western
Greenland, but the poetic Helluland was located in northeast Greenland.
To reconcile both views, Bjorn of Skardza devised his theory of
two Hellulands, the greater in northeastern Greenland, and the smaller
to the southwest of Greenland. Rafn arbitrarily located greater
Helluland in Labrador, and the lesser island in Newfoundland. (Joseph
Fischer: Pre-Columbian Discovery of America, transcribed by
Michael Donahue; emphases added).
The last two
allocations notwithstanding, the notion
of duality provides a functional fit for the present Pacific Northwest
hypothesis,
particularly the Helluland located "
to
the southwest of Greenland " if it is
understood that " Greenland " is North America and that it is the West
Coast of North America that is
under consideration. Thus it is suggested that a true duality may well
have
existed throughout to protect and preserve those Vikings who had left
Greenland
in defiance of Church and State. Or alternatively, that the confusion
was
injected by Church and State to mask the reality of the Vikings'
deeds
and the full scope of their endevours.
But either way, there are names
that
are indicative or descriptive, names that commemorate events, and some
that honour groups and individuals.
But now and again there are names
that simply do not fit at all, such as "Greenland" itself.
Green?
This huge island is more
than ninety-five
percent snow and ice at the best of times. In fact only Antarctica is
less deserving of the description. But so what. This is the name that
has come down to us, and that's all there is to say about the matter.
Or is it? From a purely historical
viewpoint perhaps so, but when it comes to the Norse Sagas the
suitability
of the names assumes critical importance.
In the Sagas, (whether singular
places or "lands")
it is the salient features that provide the names, and
unequivocally so. Thus, for example, the traditional Viking lands: Helluland
or "Flat-Rock" land after a place noteworthy for flat rocks, Markland
noteworthy for forests and timber, and Vinland for
grapes
and/or vines. To which may also be added Bear Island(s) equally
noteworthy
for bears. Whither "Greenland" then? Or more pertinently, what should
it
have been called in keeping with the above? But then again is "Ice"
really
the salient feature of Iceland, or is there something else that
describes "Iceland" just as well, if not better? How about Fireland? As indeed
John Stefansson pointed out in 1907:
It is as rational to call this Iceland as it is to call an ice-sheet measuring
several hundred
thousand square miles Greenland.
Iceland is the centre of a
sub-ocean
volcanic region, and no region of Earth has an equal title to be called
the "Land
of Fire." (John Stefansson,
"The Land of Fire," National
Geographic Magazine, Vol. XVIII, No 11, Nov 1907:741-742; emphases
supplied)
Thus based on salient features and as shown in Map
1c
below:
Modern Iceland becomes "Fireland," as
befits it.
Modern Greenland becomes "Iceland," as befits it.
Modern North America becomes "Greenland," also as
befits
it.
GREEN
the
latter assuredly
is in many
locations, particularly in the Pacific Northwest. Moreover, with this
configuration Helluland, Markland and Vinland
still lie to the west of "Greenland," as do the "Bear" islands,
"Wonder Beaches," "Keelness," the mild climate
and all the fauna and flora referred to in the Sagas,
including the
salmon,
halibut, whales, timber, wild wheat, and not least of all, the
grapes representative of Vinland itself--to be precise, the Oregon-grape,
specifically, Tall Mahonia (Mahonia
aquifolium ) that still grows in the Cowichan Valley in the
southwest corner of Vancouver Island. Whereas the Cowichan Lake
region
has long been called "the
Warm country," or
"land warmed by
the sun." (G.P.V and Helen Akrigg, British
Columbia Places Names, 3rd. Edition, UBC Press, Vancouver, 1997:54).
The
directions provided by Joseph Fischer in
pursuit of
Helluland, Markland and Vinland led first to
the "Greenland Duality," then ultimately to the location
of the three Viking lands on the Pacific Northwest side of North
America, not the East. In other words, based on salient features, with modern Iceland more correctly
"Fireland"(as
befits it) and modern Greenland more
correctly "Iceland"(as
befits it) modern North America
becomes
"Greenland" (again as
befits
it). Thus the Greenland Duality
below:
Map 1c. The
Greenland Duality
Now, with the
necessary background provide by the
Greenland duality in place, it is time to consider the import of the
reflections in the "King's Mirror" in
a similar but extended context. But first of all, the enigmatic
"Ireland the Great" and the problems that currently attend it.
IRELAND
AND IRELAND THE GREAT
IRELAND THE GREAT
An "Ireland
Dualty" has
long been
apparent in the Sagas and associated
literature, namely the existence of two
distinct Irelands. Firstly there is Ireland proper of
Europe, and another--"Ireland
the
Great"--of parts unknown. This anomaly gives rise to a number of
questions:
1.
Why should two
Irelands exist
in the first place?
2. Is there another duality in addition to that of Greenland?
3.
If so, where is (or was)
"Ireland the Great" located?
4. What have
commentators made of this puzzling duality in the past?
With respect to
the last question, very little it would seem, and even
less with respect to the second. Perhaps this was for good enough
reason, at least from a conventional viewpoint since this
additional island is almost certainly situated in the Pacific
Northwest along with the three traditional
Viking lands. Or should one say in addition to, as a replacement
for,
or a remnant of earlier writings and understandings replete with murky
origins and an uncertain heritage?
Just how murky and how uncertain
depends very much on how much progress
can be made with "Ireland the Great" itself. This said we can at least
refer
to the Pacific Northwest baseline and examine references to "Ireland
the Great" in the
literature from this particular viewpoint. For example, the
former (along with its European location) is mentioned near the end of
the following quotation from an "Icelandic
Geographical Treatise
preserved in a MS.
dating from about 1300, but evidently based on a twelfth-century
original"
(Magnusson and Pálsson 1978), the first part of
which we have already encountered in Section 3:
To the north of Norway lies Finnmark [Lapland]; from
there the land sweeps north-east and east to Bjarmaland [Permia], which
renders tribute to the king of Russia. From Permia there is uninhabited
land stretching all the way to the north until Greenland begins. To the
south of Greenland lies Helluland [Baffin Island?] and then Markland
[Labrador?]; and from there it is not far to Vinland [America], which
some people think extends from Africa.
England
and Scotland are one island, but are separate kingdoms; Ireland is a
large island. Iceland is also a large island, to the north of Ireland.
These islands are all in that part of the world called Europe. (Magnusson
and Pálsson 1978:15;
emphases
supplied)
whereas
we--by way of the
Pacific Northwest hypothesis--are concerned with islands "in
that part of the World" called [North] America. Should we still be
concentrating on
islands per se at this time?
Certainly, especially where "Ireland the Great" is concerned, and (to a
lesser extent) even Vinland itself.
But back to the Ireland
duality. That such
a duality already exists is apparent
from the names alone, but if so, precisely
where might "Ireland the Great" be located,
how does this duplication come to exist, and
also, where might we find further enlightenment concerning this matter?
The answers, perhaps surprisingly, are suggested (albeit obliquely)
in "The King's Mirror" itself, or more
properly, the wondrous (and also troublesome) details in Chapters 8 and
10. Thus:
THE REFLECTIONS IN THE KING'S MIRROR
THE MARVELS OF NORWAY AND THE
NATURAL WONDERS OF IRELAND
The first three
paragraphs from King's Mirror," Chapter
10. THE
NATURAL WONDERS OF IRELAND are as follows (indices and emphases
supplied):
Son. I am familiar with
all these things since they are found
in our own country, and I have seen them all. But I have no knowledge
of all those other marvels which are to be found in Iceland,
Greenland,
and Ireland,1
and in the seas
about those lands, for of those things I
have heard rumors only.
Father. Those
lands, if we are to speak more fully about them,
differ much in character and are not all of the same appearance. For
the wonders of Iceland
and Greenland 2
consist in
great frost and
boundless ice, or in unusual display of flame and fire, or in large
fishes and other sea monsters. And these countries are everywhere
barren and unfruitful and consequently almost unfit for habitation. But
Ireland comes near being the best land that is known to man,3
though the grape
vine
does not grow there.4 And
there are many marvels in Ireland, some of which are of
such a character that this country may be called holier than all
others.5
The country lies
on that side of the world 6 where heat
and
cold are so well tempered that the weather is never very hot or very
cold. For all
through the winter the cattle find their feed in the
open,7 and the inhabitants
wear almost no clothes there either in
winter or in summer.8 And so holy is
this land beyond all others
that no
venomous animal can exist there, either snake 9
or toad.
. .
. . . It is told of Ireland
that men scarcely know of another island of equal size10 where there are so
many holy men. We
are also told that the inhabitants of the country are by nature fierce
and murderous and very immoral But bloodthirsty
though they be, they have never slain any of the saints who are so
numerous in the land; the holy men who have dwelt there have all died
in sick bed. For the Irish have been kindly disposed
toward all good and holy men, though they have dealt savagely with each
other. (THE KING’S
MIRROR. Translated
from
the Old Norse with Introduction and Notes by Laurence Marcellus Larson,
Twayne, New York 1917:105-106; indices and emphases supplied).
The following notes expand on
the matters indicated by the added emphases and indices:
NOTES, INDICES AND MAP (ADDED)
1.“Iceland,
Greenland, and Ireland” (p. 106). This is ultimately in
the correct order, but
incorrect for the order
stated earlier in the "King’s Mirror"
on page 101 of Chapter 8, i.e.,
Greenland,
Iceland,
and Ireland.
However, with the
Greenland Duality and the first statement combined:
Modern Greenland (retained
from the Greenland Duality)
becomes Iceland
North America (also retained
from the Greenland Duality) becomes
Greenland
And Ireland
(the Great) in the Pacific
Northwest replaces Ireland proper
of
Europe.
Therefore from East-to-West:the
correct order is indeed Iceland,
Greenland, and Ireland (the Great)
Thus in
Chapter 10, with Iceland
now
Greenland, Greenland now North America and Ireland now Ireland the
Great in the Pacific Northwest, Ireland proper belongs to the first
configuration and as such is no longer present in the second, resulting in
the
east-to-west progression stated in Chapter 10: "Iceland,
Greenland, and Ireland." In other words, twin dualities
with Ireland the Great necessarily
located to the west of both
"Iceland" and "Greenland"
as
reflected in the following colour-coded map:
Map 4b.
The GREENLAND / IRELAND DUALITIES Reflected in THE KING'S MIRROR.
2. The same east-to-west
order: Iceland--Greenland
is strictly maintained with the stated harshness correct for the
northern regions of both; after which follows (again in due order)
descriptions of Ireland (the Great).
3. “But Ireland comes near
being the
best land that is known to man” An extravagant claim for
Ireland proper, but
nevertheless in
keeping with the idyllic climate of Vinland in
south-east Vancouver Island in the Pacific Northwest.
4. "Though
the grape vine does
not
grow there.”
A somewhat abrupt statement; perhaps a later add-on to (a)
misdirect, (b) protect the location, (c) Or, with (a) and (b) in mind,
a cautious replacement for the original, positive claim, i.e., that "the grape vine grows there."
5. "This country may be called holier than all
others." This is
not a simple statement when applied to Ireland the Great in the Pacific
Northwest, but it does provide confirmation for the use of "vine" in
#4, at term similarly applied with
respect to Vinland in both
Vinland Sagas and also as mentioned by Adam of Bremen in this explicit
context.
Fridjof Nansen for his part explains the name: "Holy
Island" as follows: "This epithet, which constantly recurs when
Ireland is mentioned, may perhaps in ancient times be due to the
resemblance between the Greek words ' hieros ' (holy] and ' Hierne '
(Ireland), which latter may be derived from the native name of the
island, ' Erin.' In later times, of course, it is due to Ireland
's early conversion to Christianity and its monastic system." (Fridjof
Nansen, In Northern Mists,
1911:38).
6. "On that side of the world.” Ireland proper
of the British Isles is less than 50 miles from Wales and less than
half of that again from western Scotland. On the
far side of North America, Ireland the Great in the Pacific
Northwest on the far side of America would indeed be “on
that side of
the world.”
7. "For
all through the winter
the
cattle find their feed in the open.” This may be compared to
similar statements regarding Vinland in the Sagas, e.g.,The Saga of Eirik the Red: ” They remained there that
winter.
There
was no snow at all and the livestock could fend for itself out of
doors.” (Kunz, 1997:16).
8. "The
inhabitants wear almost no clothes there either in winter or in summer."
Again the mild climate is indicated; compare this statment to the
description of the Nootka of Vancouver
Island reported by Edward S. Curtis.
9. "No
venous animal can exist
there,
either snake or toad.” Correct for Ireland proper and also Vancouver
Island in
the Pacific northwest. The Northern Pacific Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus oreganus) is
the only venomous snake in British Columbia and its range is restricted
to
the Interior Dry Belt
of the Province. (Patrick
T. Gregory
and Wayne Campbell,The Reptiles of
British Columbia, British Columbia Provincial Museum Handbook
No. 44, Victoria 1984:89-93).
10. "It
is told of Ireland that men scarcely
know of another island of equal size." A strange
statement that perhaps more pertinently should have referred to another
Ireland entirely--namely Ireland the Great--of
"equal" qualities and size (or thereabouts). Alternately, the
inhabitants of Vancouver Island (i.e.,
the First Nations) would not necessarily or even likely know of Ireland
proper itself in any case.
The
essential issue here is not an apparent confusion between the two
Irelands per se, but a reason
now for the suggested replacement of
Chapter 10's title (The Natural Marvels of Ireland)
by The
Natural Marvels of
Ireland the Great that arises from the twin duality with
Ireland the Great necessarily
located to the west of both
"Iceland" and "Greenland" as shown in Map 4b above.
So where then, is (or was) "Ireland the Great" located?
Given
the
information provided above from the "King's Mirror" in concert with the
directions that result from the
Greenland-Ireland dualities and also similarities with "Vinland"--the
mildness
of the climate, the absence of snakes, "on that side of the world,"
etc., it would just about
have to be Vancouver Island, British
Columbia, Canada and nowhere else. Or perhaps one should
say, yet another name for this other
large
"emerald isle" with its mild climate, freedom from venomous serpents
and bountiful flora and fauna, the vine and the grape
included?
Here, in addition to the above, the quest has been aided
considerably
by indicators already in place, e.g.,
because of the Greenland Duality,
possible
out-of-place discrepancies
associated with Greenland itself, which just happen to feature
prominently in Part One of the "King's Mirror." For these reasons the
following discrepancies
detected by
Fridjof Nansen after his initial praise concerning the details provided
in the "King's Mirror"
are also relevant:
The
accurate knowledge of the many species of seals and whales shown in the
"King's Mirror," to which no parallel is met with earlier in the
literature of the world, proves how important the hunting of
these
animals must have been; for otherwise so much attention would not have
been paid to them.1
1. A peculiarity
of the
account in the “King's
Mirror” is that
whales, seals and walruses are mentioned only in the seas of Iceland
and Greenland, and not off Norway, although the Norwegian author must
undoubtedly have heard of most of them in his native land. In the same
way the northern lights are only spoken of as something peculiar to
Greenland. Of the six species of seal that are mentioned, one
(“örknselr”) must be the grey seal
or “erkn” (Halichoerus grypus)
which is common
on the coast of the northern half of Norway, but is not found in
Greenland. (Frdijof Nansen, In
Northern Mists, 1911:156; emphases supplied)
Thus anomalies concerning
Greenland in the "King's Mirror" that on checking are understandable in
terms of the
Greenland Duality, i.e., the
northern regions of America (for the northern lights) and the east coast of
North America where grey seals
also abound.
Continuing in the same vein, since the "Greenlands of America" once
again replace Greenland proper the
following observation by Nansen also assumes greater import than he
perhaps himself was aware, especially with respect to the present
assignments:
The
allusion in the" King's Mirror" to the Norse inhabitants of Greenland
and their life has already been quoted in part (vol. i. p. 1-77); curiously enough the
Skraelings are not mentioned. (Nansen, 1911:247 emphases aupplied))
Finally,
since the above treatment has included changes and modifications in the
case of Ireland proper it is
helpful at this juncture to
include the following assessment given in another footnote by Nansen:
1. If Professor Moltke
Moe's view is correct, that the "King's Mirror,"
in the form which we know, is a later adaptation (cf. p. 242, note 2) it may be
supposed that the section on Ireland was inserted by the
adapter. (Nansen, 1911: 245; emphases supplied).
CELTIC
COMPLICATIONS AND PRECURSORS
Thus
the suggestion of a later insertion in the case of Ireland proper. But if Norse Vinland and Ireland the Great are taken to be
one and the same, difficulties
with relative chronologies follow immediately. Moreover, Celtic elements need to be acknowledged and also explained in the present Pacific
Northwest context. How do the two relate traditionally? According to
Fridjof Nansen's exhaustive analyses:
While Helluland,
Markland and Furðustrandir are first mentioned in
authorities of the thirteenth century, "Vinland" occurs already in Adam
of Bremen, about 1070 (see above, pp. 195 ff.). Afterwards the
name
occurs in Icelandic literature: first in Are Frode's
"Islendingabók,"
about 1130, where we are only told that in Greenland traces were
found
of the same kind of people as "inhabited Wineland" ("Vinland hefer
bygt"; see above, p. 260); it is next mentioned together with
Hvitramanna-land in the "Landnámabók," where it may have
been taken
from Are Frode ... We are only told that Hvitramanna-land lay to the
west in the ocean near Vin(d)land; but
the passage is important, because, as will be discussed later, it
clearly shows that the statements about Wineland in the oldest
Icelandic authorities were derived from Ireland. (Fridjof Nansen, In Northern Mists, 1911:312-313;
emphases supplied).
Whereas to some extent Celtic components in the "King's
Mirror" have already been examined in
general terms by Marcellus Laurence Larson, albeit without the
twin dualities and resulting focus of notes 1 through 10 above.
Nevertheless the
two problematic chapters involving Ireland are not only addressed but
also expanded to include the Welsh, "mildness of climate" included,
although without reference to the similar climate of Vinland.
For all but the two
chapters on Ireland the sources
of the author's geographical information are evidently the tales of
travelers and his own personal experiences; of literary sources there
is no trace. The
account of the marvels of Ireland, however, gives rise
to certain problems. It may be that the Norwegian geographer
based
these chapters on literary sources that are still extant, or he may
have had access to writings which have since disappeared. It is also
possible that some of the information was contributed by travelers who
sailed the western seas and had sojourned on the “western isles;” for
it must be remembered that Norway still had colonies as far south as
the Isle of Man, and that Norsemen were still living in Ireland, though
under English rule. When Hakon IV made his expedition into these
regions in 1263, some of these Norwegian colonists in Ireland sought
his aid in the hope that English rule might be overthrown.
It has long been known that many of the tales of
Irish wonders and miracles that are recounted in the Speculum Regale are also told in
the Topographia Hibernica by
Giraldus Cambrensis. The famous
Welshman wrote his work several decades before the King's Mirror was composed; and it
is not impossible that the author of the latter had access to the
“Irish Topography.” Moreover, the Speculum
Regale and the Topographia
Hibernica have certain common features which correspond so
closely that literary kinship seems quite probable. The resemblances,
however, are not so much in the details as in the plan and the
viewpoint. In the second book of his “Topography,” Giraldus
recounts “first those things that nature has planted in the land
itself;” and next “those things that have been miraculously performed
through the merits of the saints.” The author of the King's Mirror has adopted a similar
grouping. After having discussed some of the wonders of the
island he continues: "There still remain certain things that may be
thought marvelous; these, however, are not native to the land but have
originated in the miraculous powers of holy men." This correspondence
in the general plan is too remarkable to be wholly accidental; at least
it should lead us to look for other resemblances elsewhere.
In his general description of Ireland the author of
the Norwegian work calls attention to the excellence of the land and
its temperate climate: “for all through the winter the cattle find
their feed in the open.” Giraldus informs us that grass grows in winter
as well as in summer, and he adds: “therefore they are accustomed
neither to cut hay for fodder nor to provide stables for the cattle.
Both writers emphasize the fact that grapes do not grow on the island.
In both writings attention is called to the sacred character of the
Irish soil, which makes it impossible for reptiles and venomous animals
to live on the land, though Giraldus has his doubts as to the
supernatural phase of the matter. Both writers add that if sand or
dust is brought from Ireland to another country and scattered about a
reptile, it will perish. Both characterize the Irish people as savage
and murderous, but they also call attention to their kind treatment of
holy men, of whom the island has always had many. In fact, every
statement in the King's Mirror
as to the nature of the land and the character of the inhabitants can
be duplicated in Giraldus' description of Ireland, except, perhaps, the
single observation that the Irish people, because of the mildness of
the climate, often wear no clothes. (Marcellus
Laurence Larson, Trans. THE KING’S
MIRROR, Twayne
Publishers, New York 1917:21-24; emphases supplied)
Thus
an expansion that includes the Welsh along with the Irish in a
Norwegian document written in Old Norse ca. 1200 AD to add to an
increasingly complex matter. Then again, previous claims concerning the
"discovery of America" include that of Columbus himself along with
various counter-assertions and expansions, e.g.,"America not discovered by
Columbus" (Anderson, 1930) through "They All Discovered America"
(Bolland, 1961) with the latter necessarily including the Welsh among
claimants too numerous to be listed here.
As for
relative chronologies in this context,
Fridjof Nansen notes--though not with respect to the "King's Mirror"in
this instance--that:
...
the descriptions of the Wineland voyages present similarities with
Brandan's voyage; and similar resemblances
are found with other Irish
legends, so many, in fact, that they cannot be explained as
coincidences. The "Navigatio Sancti Brandani" was written in the
eleventh century, or in any case before 1100, (but parts of the legend
of Brandan may belong to the seventh and eighth centuries).(Fridjof Nansen, In Northern Mists, 1911:359;
emphases supplied).
Here
Nansen adds an afterthought
concerning dates that are considerably earlier than "about a thousand
years ago" but this is neither the time nor the place for further
expansion and the natural conclusion on this matter, which is reserved
for the final
section in any case.
THE
GREENLAND-
IRELAND DUALITY AND EIRIK THE RED'S
SAGA
In
the meantime and more
immediately, placing Ireland (the Great) in the Pacific
northwest now provides a different understanding of events recorded in
the Vinland Sagas, e.g., it
reinforces the suggestion that
Markland is indeed best understood to be the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwai) with Vancouver
Island similarly understood to be "Ireland the Great" in addition to
being "Vinland" (as Island).
In the
previous section (South by Southeast) with Eirik the Red's Saga as source we
recommenced at the point where the two Vikings,
Karlsevne and Thorhall, having sailed south down the east coast of the
Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwai), had passed "Wonder Beaches," and
had therefore reached the mid-point of Markland (or thereabouts). Here,
it seems,
Thorhall
(and presumably the majority of his crew) became disenchanted with the
venture and decided to return from whence they came. Thus Thorhall's
activities no longer have any bearing on the search for Vinland. More
importantly however,Thorhall's demise was nevertheless both puzzling
and problematic, since he was said to have attempted to sail west, but
after encountering a "westerly storm," was ultimately shipwrecked on
the coast of "Ireland." Here we do know that Thorhall sailed
north before sailing west, which is both feasible and in keeping with a
return-leg voyage from the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwai) via the
Aleutians. The main problem before was the mention of "Ireland," which is why this
treatment was deferred to the present section. Now, of course,
with the Greenland-Ireland dualities invoked it become undestandable
from a Pacific northwest perspective when it is recognised that
Vancouver Island and Ireland the Great are one and the
same.
Once this step has
been taken more can be made of the information furnished in concurrent
paragraphs from Eirik the Red's Saga
that describe the parting of the ways and what ensued thereafter. The
first part concerns the demise of Thorhall, and the second--as a new
topic--is the beginning of Karlsevne's visit to Vinland. In
between--for
the most part omitted here--are a two sets of rhymes by Thorhall; the
first expressing his disatisfaction with his current situation and the
second his desire to return
home. A separating line
is added here since most of Thorhall's rhymes are largely extraneous,
but not entirely so.
The
text below the line was treated in the previous section (albeit using a
variety of translations), whereas the text above the line concerning the demise of Thorhall is
the part that was omitted because of the incompatible an unexpected
reference to "Ireland."
Concurrent passages 9 and 10 from Eirik the Red's Saga (included by
Kunz, 1997:14) are as follows
9.
They then began to discuss and plan the continuation of their journey.
Thorhall wanted to head north, past Furdustrandir and around Kjalarnes
to seek Vinland. Karlsefni wished to sail south and east along the
shore, feeling the land would be more substantial the farther south it
was, and he felt it was advisable to explore both.
Thorhall then made his ship ready close to the
island, with no more
than nine men to accompany him. The rest of their company went with
Karlsefni.
One day as Thorhall was carrying water aboard his ship he
drank of it
and spoke this verse: (omitted)
. . .
After that they set out, and Karlsefni followed them as
far as the
island. Before hoisting the sail Thorhall spoke this verse: (omitted) .
.
They then separated and Thorhall and his crew sailed north past
Furdustrandir and Kjalarnes, and from there attempted to sail to the
west of it. But they ran into storms and were driven ashore in Ireland,
where they were beaten and enslaved. There Thorhall died.
10. Karlsefni headed
south
around the coast, with Snorri and Bjarni and the rest of their company.
They sailed a long time, until they came to a river which flowed into a
lake and from there into the sea. (Eirik the Red's Saga, translated by
Kuneva Kunz, in Hreinsson,
Vidar. Ed. The Complete Sagas of
Icelanders Including 49 Tales (5 Vols.) Leifur Eiriksson
Publishing, Reykjavik, 1997:14.
Now, with a
location established for Ireland (the Great) the information in passage
9 becomes understandable, for although some translations of Thorhall's
second
ditty are vague about his home location,
e.g., "where
our countrymen await us," (Kunz,
1997:14), "where
we shall find fellow-countrymen" (Nansen,
1911:326),
"Homeward
to our own (Olsen,
1967:35) translations by Gwyn Jones (1969:50): "where
beckon Hands of our own Greenlanders" and Gathorne-Hardy (1970:60): "To
Greenland and our friends again" clearly point to Greenland
itself, and most likely Greenland
proper in addition. Thus the latter's rhyming
translation of
Thorhall's second ditty, replete with final destination and distain for
the current location (shades of Robert Service?):
"Now lel the
vessel plough the main
To Greenland
and our friends again:
Away, and
leave the strenuous host
Who praise
this Godforsaken coast
To linger in a
desert land,
And boil their
whales in Furdustrand."
( Gathorne-Hardy, 1970:60
)
In light of the
latter--the original
Greenland duality notwithstanding--a return to Greenland proper by Thorhall may
therefore be suggested, i.e., first northwards,
then a
reciprocal course westwards towards
the Aleutians utilising latitude
sailing. If so, then we at least know where we are heading, and
also--to be consistent with what has been suggested earlier in this
context--we also have an "exact" point of departure, i.e., halfway up the east coast of
the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwai). In other words, Thorhall and
his crew would first sail north, then west and finally sail due west from the
northwest corner of these Islands. The sequence for what may have taken
place thereafter is suggested in the following map with the relevant text from Eirik the Red's Saga provided by
Fridjof Nansen, whose translation is preferred because of the
additional details provided.
Map 4c.
The DEMISE of THORHALL ( The SAGA OF EIRIK THE RED )
On the other hand,
after Kjalarnes, Kunz (1997:14) gives only that Thorhall "attempted
to sail to the west
of it. But they
ran into storms and were driven ashore in Ireland," whereas for
Nansen's "westerly storm,"Jones
(1969:149) substitutes a "west wind,"
stating that they "wished
to beat
to westwards, but encountered a west wind and were shipwrecked in
Ireland." All
versions, however, agree on two fundamental points. Firstly, that
Thorhall ended up in (or drifted to) Ireland
where he met his end as a slave. Secondly, all versions also
agree that Thorhall sailed west, which,
significantly, is exactly opposite
the direction required if Markland is situated anywhere on the east coast of North America.
SLAVES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
There are two further points to be added in support of "Ireland the
Great" in the Pacific Northwest. First of all, the largely jagged west
coast of
Vancouver Island is open to the full force of the
North Pacific and has
long been renowned for its dangerous shores and numerous
shipwrecks.
Secondly, the crew of a small vessel shipwrecked on
the
west coast of this Island
might well have been enslaved, ill-treated and killed. This is not
merely a supposition; the
suggested location for the shipwreck indicated by "D" in Map 4b is
simply the half-way point on the west coast of Vancouver Island, aka "Ireland the Great." The
location could just as well have been anywhere on the west side of the
Island, including a few miles further north at Nootka Sound--"the place that is hit by winds from
all directions"--a translation given in the Introduction of the 2000 Heritage House edition of White Slaves of Maquinna: John R. Jewitt's
Narrative of Capture and Confinement at Nootka. The latter's
confinement as a slave in the Pacific northwest lasted from 1803 to
1805, thus centuries after the time of the
Viking Sagas and a little more than a quarter of a century after the
first alleged visit by a European in 1774. However, rather than being
shipwrecked, John R. Jewitt, an English armourer on the American trading
ship Boston with a crew of 27 was one of
only two survivors of a "surprise" attack and massacre
there. This that took place even though the ship had simply stopped to
replenish supplies before trading further north for furs to sell
later in China. Nevertheless, the attack on the Boston and its crew (if not the
massacre itself) was predictable enough. Carried
out by the local Maquinna, the massacre seems to have been a long-smouldering
response to
previous provocations exacerbated by the insulting behaviour of the Boston's captain. One might
suspect that John R. Jewitt only survived by good fortune,
his demonstrated metal-working skills and an opportunity of the part of
Maquinna to enhance his status
by forcing Jewitt to reply positively to all questions concerning his
fealty as a slave. To these questions Jewitt hastily agreed when it was
made clear to him that any form of negative response meant certain
death. Even so the situation remained precarious throughout his stay.
John R. Jewitt would
always be a potentially troublesome and hostile witness of the
massacre, although oddly enough, an
opposing attitude appears to have surfaced from the start. Far from
minimising matters, the deed was forcefully driven home to Jewitt when
he
was called upon to identify each and every one of the 25
heads of
the decapitated Captain and crew of the Boston arranged for this purpose on
the ship's quarter deck. So began John R. Jewitt's two year's of
slavery in the Pacific Northwest, yet for
all his various sufferings he may well have
fared better than most, certainly better than Thorhall in any event.
There is little need here to describe
Jewitt's experiences as a slave further, except to note that the
privations leading to Thorhall's demise in Eirik the Red's Saga--sad as they
were--would be almost routine in such circumstances, at least on the
violent west coast of
Vancouver Island, and thus also on the west coast of "Ireland the
Great."
SAINT PATRICK, WOLVES, AND HELLULAND
IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Earlier
in
the "King's Mirror" and also
in
Chapter
10 (The Natural Marvels of Ireland) there was a further surprise,
especially
in
light
of the book's Scandinavian origins. But from
a Pacific Northwest
perspective--all unpleasant
aspects included--it concerns
something that may be considered sadly familiar in this part of the
world.
First,
from "King's
Mirror," Chapter X: "The Wonders of
Ireland"
concerning the actions of St. Patrick
"in that country."
There
is still another wonder in that country which
must seem quite incredible; nevertheless, those who dwell in the land
affirm the truth of it and ascribe it to the anger of a holy man. It is
told that when the holy Patricius [Saint Patrick] preached
Christianity in that country, there was one clan which opposed him more
stubbornly than any other people in the land; and these people strove
to do insult in many ways both to God and to the holy man. And when he
was preaching the faith to them as to others and came to conflict with
them where they held their assemblies, they adopted the plan of howling
at him like wolves. When he saw that he could do very little to
promote
his mission among these people, he grew very wroth and prayed God to
send some form of affliction upon them to be shared by their posterity
as a constant reminder of their disobedience. Later these clansmen did
suffer a fitting and severe though very marvelous punishment, for it is
told that all the members of that clan are changed into wolves for a
period and roam through the woods feeding upon the same food as wolves;
but they are worse than wolves, for in all their wiles they have the
wit of men, though they are as eager to devour men as to destroy other
creatures. (Marcellus Laurence Larson, Trans. THE KING’S MIRROR, Twayne
Publishers, New York 1917:115–116; emphases supplied).
Next, a
description of an actual
event
said to have taken place in the Pacific Northwest shortly after missionary William Duncan arrived at Fort
Simpson on the coast of British Columbia (in
"Helluland")
some 40 miles or so from the mouth of the Nass River on October 1st, 1867. In
short, William Duncan:
... had not been long in the
fort
before he
witnessed some shocking scenes; these revealed to him something of the
character of the natives. The first was the murder of a slave woman on
the beach in front of the fort. After her body had been thrown in the
sea, two bands of medicine men, some of them in a state of nudity, came
rushing to the spot,
howling like wolves, and having found the body,
they rushed on it, and tore it to pieces. The two naked leaders each
rushing off with half of the body which they had torn asunder.
(William Henry Collison. In the Wake
of the War Canoe, Ed. Charles
Lilliard, SONO NIS PRESS, Victoria, 1981: 9)
The latter is a
horrific incident however one looks at it, even allowing for Pacific
Northwest clans, secret societies and possibly not-so-violent
"re-enactments" by the latter, as Collison's modern editor
(Charles Lilliard) points out in a footnote. But to return to the
matter at hand, that these
similarities occur in addition to the points already stressed in the
commentary above lends further weight to the Pacific Northwest
hypothesis. As perhaps, does the following footnote from the "King's
Mirror"
by Marcellus
Laurence Larson, albeit in a
wider and possibly earlier context:
See the poem on
the "Wonders of Ireland" (Reliquiae
Antiquae, II, 105), where this transformation is alluded to.
Stories of men who have become wolves are also told in Giraldus, Opera,
V, 101, and in the Irish Nennius, 205; but these differ widely from the
account given above. Stories of werewolves and lycanthropy are found in
folklore everywhere. (Marcellus
Laurence Larson, Trans. THE KING’S
MIRROR, Twayne
Publishers, New York 1917: 116).
PART 8. South by Southeast
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Akrigg G.P.V and Helen Akrigg, British
Columbia
Places Names, 3rd. Edition, UBC Press, Vancouver, 1997.
Anderson, Rasmus B. America not
discovered by Columbus. Leif Erikson Memorial Assn., Madison,
1930.
Andersson,Theodore M. The Problem of
Icelandic Saga Origins: a Historical Survey. Yale University
Press, New Haven and London 1964.
Bolland, Charles Michael. They All
Discovered America. New York, 1961.
Cahill, Thomas. HOW THE IRISH SAVED
CIVILIZATION: The Untold Story of Ireland’s Heroic role from the Fall
of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe. Nan E. Talese, an
imprint of Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing
Group Inc., New York 1995.
Cunliffe, Barry. The Extradordinary
Voyage of Pytheas the Greek: The man who discovered Britain.
Penguin Books London 2001.
CATHOLIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA Pre-Columbian Discovery of America.
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01416a.thm]
Collison, William Henry. In
the Wake
of the War Canoe, Ed. Charles
Lilliard, SONO NIS PRESS, Victoria, 1981.
Cranz, David. The History of
Greenland Containing A Description of The Country and Its Inhabitants.
Translated from the High Dutch J. Dodsely, London 1767.
Curtis. Edward S.
Farley, Gloria. In Plain Sight. ISAC
Press, Columbus, 1984.
Fischer, Joseph. The Discoveries of
the Norsemen in America with special relation to their early
cartographical Representation. Trans. Basil H. Soulsby, Burt
Franklin, New York 1903. (Reprinted in 1970)
Fiske, John. The Discovery of
America with some Account of Ancient
America and the Spanish Conquest, 2 Vols., Macmillan and Co.,
London
1892.
Gathorne-Hardy, G. M. The Norse
Discoverers of America: The Wineland
Sagas. translated and discussed by G.M. Gathorne-Hardy with a
new
Preface by the Author and a new Introduction by Gwyn Jones. Clarendon
Press, Oxford 1970. [Originally published in 1921]
Greely, A.W. "Stefansson's Blond Eskimos" National
Geographic
Magazine, Vol. XXIII, No.12 December 1912.
Gregory,
Patrick T
and Wayne Campbell, The Reptiles of
British Columbia, British Columbia Provincial Museum Handbook
No. 44, Victoria 1984.
Hreinsson, Vidar. Ed. The Complete
Sagas of Icelanders Including 49 Tales (5 Vols.) Leifur
Eiriksson Publishing, Reykjavik, 1997.
Ingstad, Helge. WESTWARD TO
VINLAND: The Discovery of Pre-Columbian
Norse House-sites in North America (trans from Norwegian by Erik
J. Friis), Macmillan of Canada, Toronto, 1969.
Jóhannessen, Jón. Íslendinga Saga: A History of the
Old Icelandic Commonwealth. Trans. Harald Bessason, University
of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg 1974.
Jones, Gwyn. Eirik
the Red And Other Icelandic Sagas, (trans) Oxford University
Press, London 1969.
Jewitt,
John R. White Slaves of
Maquinna: John R. Jewitt's Narrative of Capture and Confinement at
Nootka, Heritage House, Surrey 2000.
Kunz,
Kuneva,
trans. Eirik the Red's Saga,
in Hreinsson,
Vidar. Ed. The Complete Sagas of
Icelanders Including 49 Tales (5 Vols.) Leifur Eiriksson
Publishing, Reykjavik, 1997.
Larsen,Laurence M. THE KING’S MIRROR
(Speculum Regale–Konung’s Skuggsjá). Trans.from the
Old Norse with Introduction and Notes by Laurence Marcellus Larson,
Twayne, New York 1917.
Magnusson, Magnus and
Herman Pálsson. Trans.The
Vinland Sagas: The Norse Discovery of America. Penguin Books, New
York 1978.
Nansen, Fridtjof. In Northern Mists,
2 Vols. Frederick A Stokes, New York, 1911.
Nutt, Alfred. Upon the Irish Version
of the happy otherworld and the Celtic Doctrine of Rebirth; in
Meyer, Kuno. The Voyage of Bran Son
of Febal to the Land of the Living, David Nutt, London 1895.
Oleson, Tryggi J. Early
Voyages and Northern Approaches 1000 - 1632. McClelland &
Stewart, Toronto 1963.
Pálsson,
Herman and Paul Edwards. Trans.The
Book of Settlements:
Landnámabók. University of Manitoba Press,
Winnipeg, 1972.
Reeves, Arthur. M. The
Finding
of Wineland the Good: The History of the Icelandic Discovery of America,
Burt Franklin, New York, 1895.
Seaver,
Kirsten, The Frozen Echo, Stanford University Press,
Stanford, 1996.
Smith, Derek. Ed. The Adventures and
Sufferings of John R. Jewitt, Captive Among the Nootka Indians of
Vancouver lsland, 1803 to 1805. McClelland and Stewart. Toronto 1993.
Stefannson, John."The Land
of Fire, National Geographic Magazine,
Vol. XVIII, No 11, November 1907.
THE
LAST VIKING
Introduction to The
Last Viking
Part 1. Viking
Press and
Viking
Ships
Part 2. West by Northwest
Part 3. Three Steps Back
Part 4.
The Nova
Groenlandiae Map
Part 5. The Mysterious
Akilinik of the Greenlanders
Part 6. Symbols, Markers and
Indicators
Part 7. Reflections
in the
King's Mirror [ Current
selection ]
Part 8. South by Southeast
Part 9. The
Copper
Canoe
Part 10. The Warp and the Weave
Part 11. Helluland, Markland
and
Vinland
Part 12. The Golden Apples of
the Sun
Maps: Partial Map Listing
forThe Last Viking
Postscript 1: A Fir Tree of the
Mind
(pdf)
Postscript 2: RongoRongo and the
Raven's Tail
OTHER: Easter Island
Stone Structures
Return
to spirasolaris.ca
Copyright ©
1999.
John N.
Harris, M.A. Last Updated on December 31, 2023.
